Women in Men’s Trousers: Joan of Arc, Authority, and Controversy

Last weekend, I had the pleasure of seeing one of my favourite historians, the legendary Professor Janina Ramirez, speak at the Sheldonian Theatre here in Oxford. Promoting her new book ‘Legenda’, she discussed looking behind the images of impressive historical women to find the real woman beneath. One such figure she focuses on is Joan of Arc. This is my final term of teaching at university, and as part of this, I have been studying Joan of Arc. But who was Joan, and why did her choice of clothing matter?

Joan of Arc, a teenage visionary from Domremy, quite literally changed the course of French history while wearing men’s trousers. That is slightly an over-simplification on my part, but Joan’s gender was significant in her quest for the Valois victory. In this post, I argue that Joan’s choice to adopt male clothing was central to her identity and authority, shaping both how contemporaries saw her and how she could assert power in a male-dominated world.

The Context

Joan of Arc was likely born around 1412 in Domremy, a small area loyal to the dauphin Charles. Yet she was no stranger to danger - the Burgundians, enemies of her homeland, bordered the village. France had been engulfed by fighting in the period of the Hundred Years’ War, and Joan lived through a particularly tense period in which the dauphin Charles had been removed from the line of succession. This was the result of the assassination of the then Duke of Burgundy, which intensified the conflict between the Burgundians and the Armagnac faction supporting the dauphin Charles. Under the Treaty of Troyes (1420), Henry V married Catherine of Valois with the intention that Henry V would become King after the death of Charles VI, leading to Henry's legitimate recognition as heir to the French throne. 

The Treaty of Troyes was ineffective. Henry V and Charles VI both died in 1422, two years after the treaty was signed. Luckily, Henry V had a newborn son, Henry VI. However, Henry was just a baby. England now had to maintain Lancastrian France (areas of the North of the kingdom they had secured under Agincourt in 1415) and try to reclaim the rest of its territories from the dauphin (Charles VII). 

The English ran a rather successful campaign until March of 1429, when their fates changed at the loss of the Siege of Orleans. Here, amongst the military prowess of the English, Joan’s incredible story began. 

The Presentation of Joan in Sources

Sadly, the story of Joan of Arc doesn’t have a particularly nice ending. Joan was burned at the stake for multiple ‘reasons’ (known as the 12 Articles) on the 30th of May 1431. However, she was a remarkable figure, and much is known about her from the material from this period. 

Joan is first recorded as appearing at the Siege of Orleans (March 1429) in the Chronique of Clement de Fauquembergue. He was a clerk of the Parlement of Paris, the governing and administrative centre of France. Now, sources such as parliamentary minutes were used to discuss key events, what needed to happen, and so on. Yet, the doodle of Joan in this text is utterly remarkable. She is deliberately portrayed as feminine. 

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_historical_interpretations_of_Joan_of_Arc#/media/File:Contemporaine_afb_jeanne_d_arc.png)  

It is quite clear that the likes of Clement de Fauquemberge would not have been present on the battlefield: he was not a soldier. Yet, the presence of someone like Joan at the Siege of Orleans must have been so striking to those present that stories of her appearance began to spread. Thus, she makes her way into the minutes of the parliament described simply as a “maid” in the midst of the battle, and is presented as such.

Joan is undeniably feminine in Fauquemberge’s image. She has visible breasts, long hair and a delicate face, and what appears to be a dress. However, she is holding a sword - a most unusual sight for a women. From other sources we are aware that Joan presents herself as a soldier and is often depicted in dress as one. The choice to present her in traditional female dress suggests that, despite Joan’s decision to dress in male clothing and to attend unusual activities, like battle, to those on the site, she was still very clearly identifiable as a woman. 

So we have seen how those away from the battlefield may perceive Joan, but what about those in the court's inner circle?

Enguerrand Monstrelet, born in Picardy (Burgundian territory), was a member of the lower nobility and, crucially, an administrator at the Burgundian court. The Duke of Burgundy was a powerful man; he had money and, most importantly, various options for allegiances that could benefit him. For the first half of our period (1419-1435), Burgundy supported England’s claims to France. Monstrelet, in his Chronicle, intended to chart the end of the Hundred Years’ War, and by all accounts, it is a remarkably detailed source, often including elements of treaties. His source is particularly interesting regarding how he perceives Joan. 

Unlike the clerk above, who portrays Joan as some incredible figure in the midst of the battlefield, Monstrelet goes to great lengths to discredit her. Writing from the perspective of the Burgundian court, Monstrelet attributes Joan’s successes in relation to those who support her efforts. He comments that the French were weak and influenced by Joan (who he brands a “mysterious evil”); attacking not just her role, but those she was representing too. Monstrelet was Burgundian and unlikely wished for Valois success. Given that his account was likely written up in the 1440s (following the collapse of the Anglo-Burgundian alliance in 1435), it is credible he altered aspects of Joan's identity for political reasons.

Contrastingly, the contemporary writer and proto-feminist icon Christine de Pizan records that Joan is a revolutionary figure. Even going so far as to present her as a biblical heroine, buying into the prophetic narrative of a maiden who comes to unite France. Similarly, this is reflected in the anonymous The Response of a Good and Loyal Frenchman, published in 1420 following the Treaty of Troyes, which led to the English Henry V being named next in line to the throne of France. 

To de Pizan, Joan was proving her prowess, achieving things that men had not done throughout the Hundred Years' War. With the arrival of Joan to the Siege of Orleans in March of 1429, the fortunes of the French began to change. Claiming to be sent by G-d, and now having the results to elevate her attention within the Valois court, Joan had become a point of interest for the people of France.

We must infer that Joan became such a point of interest as she is indeed present in sketches like the Parlement of Paris record, and also because de Pizan comes out of retirement to discuss her. Perhaps she restored a sense of hope to the kingdom that had long begun to exist under English rule?

She was, however, not just viewed in a black and white image - either good or bad. Joan was perceived to be greater in complexity by contemporaries like Jean Gerson. He sets forward a balanced argument in his De Mirabili Victoria in which Joan is presented in both a positive and negative light. Gerson applies theological frameworks to interrogate the aspects of Joan's character, from her dress to her behaviour. 

Joan’s dress is the crux of many of the issues with her character. According to theological arguments from the time, she should not have worn men’s clothing. To modern readers, the idea that clothing could be strictly gendered may seem strange. By this, it typically meant that Joan wore armour and trousers and had short hair, all attributes of the medieval male. 

Joan, According to Historians

Joan has been the source of much scholarly debate. Deborah A. Fraioli's study has examined Joan in the context of her early historiography, namely the Trial records. In addition, contemporaries like Christine de Pizan’s Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc have also explored similar themes. Whereas the likes of Marina Warner, have, instead of investigating the literary image of Joan, explored how Joan’s behaviours were perceived as heresy. 

What comes from these studies is a multifaceted view of Joan. Sometimes Joan is viewed as a passive character, at other times a fiery individual. (See Joan’s Letter to the Hussites, 23 March 1430). Historians, as such, have a wealth of information to build a picture of Joan’s character as well as her appearance. 

Dress

This makes her clothing choices all the more important. As touched on above, Joan’s dress was visible and extensively commented on. Quite frankly, she was iconic in appearance. Boldly making her claim as a warrior (wearing armour), and inserting herself into situations in which such dress was necessary (the battlefield). 

While Joan claimed that she wore such dress as instructed by her ‘voices’ (Sts Katherine, Margaret and Gabriel), the choice nevertheless was divisive. Women were prohibited under the Old Testament laws from wearing ‘male’ clothing (Deuteronomy 22:5), but as arguments like Gerson’s have highlighted, it was not always a credible argument against her dress. However, her accusers argued that Joan was indeed guilty of heresy in Article 5 of the Twelve Articles of Accusation. This was because she did not adhere to the Church's (Church Militant) urging her to re-dress in female attire. As she was defiant (as also shown by the examples of her own writings), Joan was now in a dangerous position. 

Women in this period did have influence, but not the extent that someone like Joan, who was of a peasant background, would see. Joan’s defiance of social norms, her background, dress and even the authority of the Church Militant shows how far she was willing to continue her spiritual mission. 

A strong leader, Joan adopted male clothing to further her cause. This is an aspect of cross-dressing that historians like Crane have noted as socially beneficial to the individuals who undertook it. Without this ‘costume’ of armour, Joan would not have been able to fight; she would have been vulnerable. With the adoption of this dress style, she became a force, embracing the Lord’s mission and demonstrating her dedication to its completion. 

To conclude, Joan’s use of cross-dressing (whether she was aware of the dangers it possessed or not), demonstrates the importance of defiance of social norms for the benefit of one's cause. Without Joan pushing against the established expectations of women and adopting masculine characteristics of dress, the Valois cause may not have been so well reinvigorated in their cause. (See de Pisan). She truly was a maverick of her time. 

Extract:

Twelve Articles of Accusation - Article 5

The same woman did say and affirm that, by the command and good pleasure of God, she had taken and borne and continues still to bear a man’s dress. Further, she did say that, because she had had God’s command to bear this habit, it was necessary that she should have a short tunic, cap, jerkin, breeches, hose with many points, hair cut close above her ears, keeping no garment which might indicate her sex. She did say and affirm that she had, in this dress, several times received the Sacrament of the Eucharist. She had not desired and did still not desire to resume woman’s dress, although many times required and charitably admonished so to do. At times she said that she would rather die than leave off the dress which she bears; at times she said that she will leave it off only by the command of God. She did also say that if she again found herself with this dress among those for whom she had armed herself she would act as she did before her capture; and this would be, she did add, one of the greatest benefits that could happen to the whole kingdom of France. Also, for nothing in the world will she swear to wear this dress or to take arms no more. In all this she did say that she had done and did well, obeying God and His Commandments. (Taken from: https://www.jeanne-darc.info/trials-index/the-twelve-articles-of-accusation/) 

Church Militant: The Church in the administrative form (adhering to what is set out by the Pope, Cardinals and Bishops as part of the Christian community of the Church body).